INTRODUCTION
80% of the total population of Zambians in Zambia is considered impoverished and live on less than a dollar a day, the majority being Women. The country is ranked 166th out of 177 in the 2003 UN Human Development Index where 1 is the wealthiest and 177 counts for the most impoverished. Over a third of the population is not formally employed and survives on small scale trading and street vending. The extreme conditions in the country have warranted the emergence of Civil Society Organizations like the Non Governmental Organization Coordinating Council (NGOCC) to assist the government in mitigating the Social development needs of the country. Most of these organizations place women’s empowerment first on their agenda. According to the NGOCC report on the status of women 2004, five priority areas in Zambia for the Advancement of women include;
· The persistent and growing burden of poverty on women and their unequal access to resources and participation in economic structure and policies;
· Inequality in access to and opportunities in education, skills development and training;
· Women’s unequal access to health and related services;
· Inequality between women and men in the sharing of Power and decision making; and
· The rights of the girl child
To coordinate efforts with Organizations that form its membership, the NGOCC has formed Communication Networks to share and collect information. It utilizes Information Communication Technology (ICT) strategies such as Email, Radio and recently the Mobile Cellular Phone for communication. The Mobile Cellular Phone has emerged as a convenient approach for communication due to its properties as a technology that can be utilized in remote areas where infrastructure for conventional fixed line Telephone communication does not exist. Generally convenient for advocacy purposes as opposed to the fixed line Telephone, the mobile phone is currently the most utilized Telephony system in the country accounting for about 2,000,000 subscribers in 2008 with indicators showing a doubling of subscribers since 2006. Most Communications infrastructure development is concentrated along the line of rail owing to Mobile Cellular Phones being the best communication option for Women’s empowerment Networks in outlying areas where poverty has become extensive.
The limitations to the Women’s Empowerment Networks and women in general in utilizing the Mobile Cellular Phones effectively have become obstructions to progress. The cost of purchasing and maintaining the Mobile Cellular Phone handset for receiving and making calls, the connection costs to the Service providers, the many unanswered questions on the unknown negative health effects related to using the mobile Cellular Phone, the potential for the mobile phone’s contribution to pollution, the unavailability of electricity infrastructure in disadvantaged communities or cost of access to electricity (Mobile Pones need constant battery charging), the belief that it enforces promiscuity and lies, and the exorbitant tariffs attached to making calls. Due to its relative newness on the Zambian scene and the Zambian Civil Society context, effective uses of the tool are emerging.
In light of the challenges met by the Zambian Women’s networks to utilize the mobile phone more effectively in their work to empower Zambian women, the following questions emerge;
· How can Women’s Networks in Zambia like the NGOCC network create beneficial networks with other women and women’s networks to form mutually beneficial alliances to achieve the five priority areas for women’s empowerment in Zambia[1]?
· What needs to be done in order to make the mobile phone more accessible and beneficial to women in Zambia?
· What do women need to know in order for them to make wiser decisions on whether they should use the mobile phone for their communication?
· To what extent can Women’s Empowerment through the achievement of the five priority areas be achievable with the use of the mobile Cellular phone?
The Research objective was to establish how members of the NGOCC Women’s Network in Zambia utilize Mobile Cellular Phone Services in their work to Advance the status of Zambian Women. The research was carried out in Lusaka the capital city of Zambia over a period of one year. Qualitative Research methods where utilized. The Research process identified respondents and structured the group in two classifications as follows;
1. Women leaders of the NGOCC Network
2. Respondents with background information on the system of mobile Cellular phone Service provision.
The main body of the research findings is determined by the 1st classification which includes 5 women leaders of the NGOCC network from 5 separate NGOCC Member Organizations with separate mandates and a common interest in empowerment of women. The second Classification mainly includes officials from Mobile Cellular Phone Service Provision Companies, the Competitions Commission of Zambia and an official from the National Communication Regulation body the Communications Authority of Zambia CAZ.
The research process revealed that Women’s Effective adaptation of the Mobile Cellular Phone for Progressive Communication can contribute to Enhancement of women and Women’s Empowerment Organisations in Zambia.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The Research process identified respondents by structurally interviewing key stake holders in the process of service provision. The structure involves two classifications as follows;
1. Women leaders of the NGOCC Network
2. Respondents with background information on the system of mobile Cellular phone Service provision.
The main body of the research findings is determined by the 1st classification which includes 5 women leaders of the NGOCC network from 5 separate NGOCC Member Organizations with separate mandates and a common interest in empowerment of women. They give detailed personal accounts of how they use the Mobile Cellular phone as a tool for communication both in their lives and collectively within networks; their insights shed light on the personal experiences that characterize women in this group. The second Classification mainly includes officials from Mobile Cellular Phone Service Provision Companies, the Competitions Commission of Zambia and an official from the National Communication Regulation body the Communications Authority of Zambia CAZ. Through this group, technical insight in the systems of service delivery and the possibilities for change both possible and intentioned was collected.
Throughout the research process, a participatory process with respondents was utilized based on acceptance of the understanding that Social innovations succeed when social sectors play a role and intentionality of women users is complex and undeterminable; Only the general sense indicating patterns was considered through a rigorous process informed by a selection of Qualitative research methods that encompass the general GRACE Research methodology process. These methods include;
· The Free Attitude interview
· Writing, reading and feedback exercises through the Probing depth analysis(Exercising a reflective stance)
· Literature Reviews
The respondents where active participants in the research process and they gave their consent and endorsement of the research process.
REVELATIONS
The research process revealed that Women’s Effective adaptation of the Mobile Cellular Phone for Progressive Communication can contribute to Enhancement of women and Women’s Empowerment Organisations in Zambia.
To establish how members of the NGOCC Women’s Network in Zambia utilize Mobile Cellular Phone Services in their work to Advance the status of Zambian Women, the research found;
· There is no compilation of Gender Disaggregated data on Mobile Cellular Phone use in Zambia.
Women’s Organisations that have been involved in work on women’s empowerment are usually incapacitated to carry out Research and often do not have documented records in terms of the relationship between women’s empowerment and ICTs like Mobile Phones.
The absence of disaggregated data makes it difficult for effective tracking of Women’s access and use of the Mobile Cellular phone. The opportunity to improve the general effects of the tool in women’s communication through service delivery is severely limited as a result. Other than the absence of disaggregated data, whose absence is indication of a lack of policy interest, general research on mobile phones in relation to women’s empowerment still remains scant to non existent.
· Women’s Mobile Communities are forming around Networks sustained by the use of Mobile Cellular Phones along varied common interests as the Mobile Cellular Phone becomes the most commonly used Telephone communication tool in Zambia.
Women who own mobile Phones communicate with other women as well as men. Un-moderated and free content developed as they communicate consists of common interest issues; free content and support across a wide range of needs is being rendered across these communities from monetary exchange, information exchange and basic sharing of experiences. Cultural relations are evolving as physical ties are being replaced with ‘electronic ones’.
· Mobile Services i.e. The Internet, MMS and Radio Integrated into the Mobile Phone Service system in Zambia provide access to ICT services across the broad spectrum of Zambian women beyond Telephone (voice) Communication
A broad spectrum of Women is within reach of other ICT Services through their mobile phones, this includes rural communities. However access to services is not a prerequisite to utilization as Zambian women continue to face the challenge of illiteracy, and low incomes. Note that services while in reach require subscribers to pay for utilization, the charges for convenient utilization remain limiting for most Zambians.
· The poorer the Community, the higher the use of the Mobile Cellular Phone to meet Communication Needs: Mobile Cellular Phone Communication is more a method of Communication for poor communities than economically stable ones.
Women in poor communities most often have no other choice of communication beyond the Mobile Cellular Phone as infrastructure is absent there. These communities develop coping strategies on how to utilize the mobile Cellular Phone around the limitations of costs of doing so.
· The Presence of the Mobile Cellular Phone stimulates gender based conflicts in Zambian Communities.
It remains largely difficult to establish whether the utilization of the mobile phone is a source of domestic conflict and gender based conflict. However, the frequency of cases where Gender based conflicts has occurred and the mobile Cellular Phone was cited as a contributing factor suggests adequate merit for investigation. The Socialization of Zambians based on deep cultural, traditional and religious grounds brings to the fore the principle that married couples are one. This principle contradicts the customized nature of the mobile phone that presents it as a personal and private property owned by its user. In a home where a couple each own a mobile phone, the boundary of ownership is often crossed out of both curiosity and suspicion on whom the other partner is communicating with. At this moment, conflict arises and the consequences in the extreme include gender based violence, divorce etc.
DISCUSSION
Women’s Effective adaptation of the Mobile Cellular Phone for Progressive Communication can contribute to Enhancement of women and Women’s Empowerment Organisations in Zambia. The Research to establish how members of the NGOCC Women’s Networks in Zambia utilize Mobile Cellular Phone Services in their work to Advance the status of Zambian Women was carried out in Lusaka over a one year period. The core respondent base was informed by 5 women leaders who are members of the NGOCC Network.
Assessment
· There is no compilation of Gender Disaggregated data on Mobile Cellular Phone use in Zambia.
Women’s Organisations that have been involved in work on women’s empowerment are usually incapacitated to carry out Research and often do not have documented records in terms of the relationship between women’s empowerment and ICTs like Mobile Phones.
The absence of disaggregated data makes it difficult for effective tracking of Women’s access and use of the Mobile Cellular phone. The opportunity to improve the general effects of the tool in women’s communication through service delivery is severely limited as a result. Other than the absence of disaggregated data, whose absence is indication of a lack of policy interest, general research on mobile phones in relation to women’s empowerment still remains scant to non existent.
The culture of institutional memory retention is poor. Officers tend to keep information in their private custody and after they leave office it vanishes with them. NGOCC Report.
The media laws of the country are the basis for the impediments to easy information access in public service institutions (Chanda, Liswaniso). Bureaucracy must be followed at all times.
The media largely remains a source of information on a wide spectrum of issues including information on gender. However it is mostly Skewed towards portraying women negatively. Many institutions are working to reform it. It is the chief source of the narrative of women’s oppression. (My views on the news! Morna, Ramaand Muriungi 2005)
NGOCC is working to develop a data bank on women’s status through its information resource center. There is a general absence of such measures across the board.
· Women’s Mobile Communities are forming around Networks sustained by the use of Mobile Cellular Phones along varied common interests as the Mobile Cellular Phone becomes the most commonly used Telephone communication tool in Zambia.
Women who own mobile Phones communicate with other women as well as men. Un-moderated and free content developed as they communicate consists of common interest issues; free content and support across a wide range of needs is being rendered across these communities from monetary exchange, information exchange and basic sharing of experiences. Cultural relations are evolving as physical ties are being replaced with ‘electronic ones’. The NGOCC secretariat would rather call members’ mobile phones than fixed office lines because mobile phones surpass the bureaucracy and there is a guarantee of communicating with the desired subject.
To better visualize the concept of Mobile Communities created by the body of women users of the Mobile phone who are affiliated to the NGOCC network, we can hold the image of communities. Each community is configured when contact on a matter of common interest is initiated. Every individual user determines the configuration of participants in their own matter of interest and they play a leading role in determining the content produced through discussions.
As Chaitali Sinha puts it, in the paper ‘Effect of mobile telephony on empowering rural communities’, A way to describe the value of networking on the mobile phone is the principle of Social Capital. In the paper, what is made clear is the fact that because of the circumstances of the poor, power and resources are achieved through collective efforts. Further, the Theory of Social Capital can be applied in showing the nature and extent to which social interaction between communities and institutions shape economic performance.
Beyond it’s individual members, organizations like the NGOCC have immeasurable potential through Social groups. Social Networks are the structural element s that it has utilized in achieving the vast changes towards women’s progress not only within its immediate organizational environment but also Nationwide.
While pointing out that communities can be created through exchanges of voice and data via mobile Phone, a major factor to consider is Money.
Only Women with talk-time (Call units) will be privileged members of the mobile community, with the ability to initiate conversation and having the power of choice of when to communicate. Those with no call units may be included at the discretion of those who do. This can present negative effects of such networking and exacerbate inequalities if not rectified. Beeping and the SMS are coping methods in situations where users want to avoid costs as they are almost free. Network members can beep the institution and the institution will call them back, this practice is widespread across the spectrum of users.
Formal institutions like the NGOCC are slow to adapt to the requirements of maintaining mobile communication networks. It supports members who face economic hardships by calling them to alert them on developments. Such members most often depend on a communal Mobile phone. In most cases, a person with a mobile phone becomes a communication hub for the community and they relay information establishing themselves as a community economical hub.
The advocacy department of the NGOCC does not incentivize to provide for mobile communication expenditure of officers.
Social Capital is created on the NGOCC network as members of mobile communities communicate freely, from any location across unlimited geographical locations in Zambia. Sinha argues that these phone calls reinforce social networks and in turn generate social capital. For the NGOCC this sort of capital is a prerequisite to policy influence and successful advocacy.
As is evident in the following cases where the mobile Cellular Phone was used for advocacy;
Case
Context
Action taken through the Mobile Cellular Phone
Result
Elections monitoring
During the 2006 General elections, the NGOCC networks campaigned for women by communicating women candidates to vote for
Alerts to the membership during campaigns where sent via sms and during counting of ballots, updates on who was winning where sent on the minute. This was never before seen in the closely contested election as fears of indiscriminate vote rigging where largely dispelled as a result
There is currently the largest number of women in Government and parliament than ever before.
Firing of the mayor
In early 2007, the mayor of Lusaka Susan Nakazwe ; a woman was expelled from her party for taking part in a Presidential parade to welcome the Chinese President that was forbidden by the opposition party she belonged to
Updates to expose the gender implications of losing the mayor in the position where sent out across the country through the mobile. SMSs where also sent to her to giver her comfort
The Female mayor lost her position but is aware of the support rendered to her.
Firing of the minister of Health
The Female Minister of health Angela Cifire was fired from her post in mid 2007.
SMSs to Angela Cifire where sent to give her encouragement and advocacy messages for reinstatement where sent across the country
She was reinstated as minister but in the different portfolio of Deputy minister of Sport
The Arranged marriage of a UNZA Student
There is currently a case in the High Court of Zambia where a University of Zambia student is being forced it marriage to an older man residing in Somalia by her parents
Updates on court hearings are sent to inform supporters to turn up in numbers to give support to the Female student who has been shunned by her family
The Student has won the support of many Zambians and her case is public knowledge
The constitutional making process
The process of developing and adopting a constitutional making process is underway in Zambia
The process of adopting a constitution in Zambia Is currently a contentious one with parties arguing on the mode of adoption. SMSs sent to networks on the issue largely give reasons for the best modes of adoption and implications of bad constitutions
The Process is currently underway
· Mobile Services i.e. The Internet, MMS and Radio Integrated into the Mobile Phone Service system in Zambia provide access to ICT services across the broad spectrum of Zambian women beyond Telephone (voice) Communication
A broad spectrum of Women is within reach of other ICT Services through their mobile phones, this includes rural communities. However access to services is not a prerequisite to utilization as Zambian women continue to face the challenge of illiteracy, and low incomes. Note that services while in reach require subscribers to pay for utilization, the charges for convenient utilization remain limiting for most Zambians.
‘Leap frogging’ is the description given to the phenomenal effect of innovations that come with the mobile Cellular phone. As Zambia is a late adapter of ICT, regulatory frameworks are still incongruent with demands of the rapidly changing communications landscape and do not provide adequate room for advancement of innovations. Mobile Cellular Phones are providing multi access to ICT with combination of voice and data services combined and accessed through the handset. All regions of the country are within reach of the service and the communities which had previously no fixed line Telephone infrastructure have leapfrogged to accessing internet, MMS and mobile Telephony Sinha.
Universal access to Communications infrastructure like never before looks achievable. The digital divide is reducing as greater access is becoming achievable.
· The poorer the Community, the higher the use of the Mobile Cellular Phone to meet Communication Needs: Mobile Cellular Phone Communication is more a method of Communication for poor communities than economically stable ones.
Women in poor communities most often have no other choice of communication beyond the Mobile Cellular Phone as infrastructure is absent there. These communities develop coping strategies on how to utilize the mobile Cellular Phone around the limitations of costs of doing so.
Sinha points out that although traditional trends explain the development of the fixed line system, the case for mobile phones is different. Research has found that the higher the level of income inequality, the more likely individuals in such areas will own a mobile phone. One of the reasons is the payment model of the mobile phone that can be described as an ownership model.
Belonging to a single person, it will be shared informally in the community due to a strong culture of sharing among women’s communities (Mato Shimabale Celtel) replicating the access effect as access is spread out across a spectrum of individuals. Actual statistics can be misleading due to this fact. It enforces a collectivist sense.
However, The research found that the value of the mobile is only as good as the content for which it is used in the community. “The Cell Phone is a highway” (Bob Wang ZTE). Individuals determines the general direction in which to direct its use. In poor communities, the mobile phone can be reduced to a mare status symbol and entrap the user into spending valuable resources to sustain communication through it, crippling, it will drastically reduce disposable income to other developmental activities. In the words of Leah Mitaba Communications specialist at NGOCC ; “I spent more on my Mobile last month than I do for my children’s School fees. After I found out, I wondered how I could have spent so much on the mobile Phone, I almost threw it away!” But even after her realization, she still holds on to the Tool. Her combined value for it deems to override her misgivings. Very suggestive of an addiction.
· The Presence of the Mobile Cellular Phone stimulates gender based conflicts in Zambian Communities.
It remains largely difficult to establish whether the utilization of the mobile phone is a source of domestic conflict and gender based conflict. However, the frequency of cases where Gender based conflicts has occurred and the mobile Cellular Phone was cited as a contributing factor suggests adequate merit for investigation. The Socialization of Zambians based on deep cultural, traditional and religious grounds brings to the fore the principle that married couples are one. This principle contradicts the customized nature of the mobile phone that presents it as a personal and private property owned by its user. In a home where a couple each own a mobile phone, the boundary of ownership is often crossed out of both curiosity and suspicion on whom the other partner is communicating with. At this moment, conflict arises and the consequences in the extreme include gender based violence, divorce etc. Organisations like the NGOCC are faced with the challenge of understanding the phenomenon and defining an approach to tackle conflicts.
In the book is multiculturalism bad for women? Saskia Hassen in an essay titled Culture beyond gender tackles culture. She describes Group rights as Cultural rights and stresses that group rights are considered a way of protecting the importance of culture. In this context, we observe that the rights of the individual woman user may contradict the principle of the cultural principle that women and men are one. Saskia insists that it is difficult for women to exercise their individual sense of self, and richness of experience/norms/rituals in most cultures where women are disempowered. It is this sense of self that is in conflict with the cultural demand for women’s subordination and yields the gender based conflict. Where the conflict occurs and affects women, it is most often the case that the woman sacrifices the group rights in favor of individual rights even at the cost of peace. But peace is not only the sole absence of physical conflict. In describing Peace Justin Kilcullen in Development of peoples 2007 contends that Development is the new name for peace, that development cannot only be limited to mere economic growth; and that to be authentic it must promote the good of every person and of the whole person. Current conflicts expose women’s resistance to cultural restrictions towards achieving the kind of peace or wholeness that is development. In effect, the mobile phone presents itself as a culturally revolutionizing tool. Organisations like the NGOCC can utilize the current conflicts to stimulate awareness on tolerance for women’s progress for a greater political awareness.
Main Conclusions
The research process revealed that Women’s Effective adaptation of the Mobile Cellular Phone for Progressive Communication can contribute to Enhancement of women and Women’s Empowerment Organisations in Zambia. The following findings provide an initial outlook of the Zambian Mobile communications landscape;
· There is no compilation of Gender Disaggregated data on Mobile Cellular Phone use in Zambia.
· Women’s Mobile Communities are forming around Networks sustained by the use of Mobile Cellular Phones along varied common interests as the Mobile Cellular Phone becomes the most commonly used Telephone communication tool in Zambia.
· Mobile Services i.e. The Internet, MMS and Radio Integrated into the Mobile Phone Service system in Zambia provide access to ICT services across the broad spectrum of Zambian women beyond Telephone (voice) Communication
· The poorer the Community, the higher the use of the Mobile Cellular Phone to meet Communication Needs: Mobile Cellular Phone Communication is more a method of Communication for poor communities than economically stable ones.
· The Presence of the Mobile Cellular Phone stimulates gender based conflicts in Zambian Communities.
As a tool it can be used to alleviate or enforce the negative cultural and historical discrimination of women. It is an opportunity for the creation of a reality that women want to see. The content created through it must be beneficial to women, it must be created and determined by women.
It can present women as equals over the network with men who in face to face interaction would be a source of intimidation, if viewed as a communication platform that cuts across the boundaries of culture and sidesteps bureaucracies.
Mobile cellular phone service providers, policy makers and gender activists can be included in the work towards women’s emancipation. They determine the political will that can insure positive access of women to ICT through ‘leap frogging’ for the benefit of greater access and closing the digital gap. It is a tool for the creation of political awareness, and breaks the hierarchical pattern of technological diffusion
Women can network through it and mobilise for their own increased economic empowerment and collective voice within the political system as a means towards ending institutionalised gender discrimination.
Actions
REDUCE COSTS RELATED TO USE
exploitative costing cripples users and reduces disposable incomes. Government policy intervention could reduce taxes that influence cost and where in merit, as in the European Union Roaming charge intervention[2], tone down exploitative costing frameworks
MOBILIZE WOMEN AND CREATE MOBILE COMMUNITIES
From examples of effective Mobile Phone enhanced mobilization, it is clear that formalization of mobile communities would add to effectiveness of this method of advocacy. networks like the NGOCC can include expenditure for mobile Cellular Phone advocacy into the program and advocacy budgets. They can work towards creating beneficial ways for inclusion of women of all walks of life into these communities i.e. Women with Disabilities.
ADVOCATE FOR WOMEN SPECIFIC SERVICES
Currently there are services integrated by the service providers for groups like farmers, business etc where users can access commodity prices, and flight schedules at a limited cost. For women’s advocacy, information on what to do in times of abuse, maternal health notes and definitions of women’s disempowerment situations can also be posted for free access to users.
TRADE IN MOBILE CELLULAR PHONES AND MOVE BEYOND MARE USE TO PROVISION
As opposed to being mare users, Women’s groups can evolve to being communication hubs in their communities by trading in the Mobile Communication services. This provides opportunity to shift to a position of influence in the community and they can quickly also become Economic nodes (Sinha)
INCREASE EDUCATION PROGRAMS ON THE POTENTIAL RISKS RELATED TO CELL USE
Mobile Phone base stations are a hazard to the health of communities residing in close proximity to them (WHO IEGMP 2000) Generally a contentious issue, Mobile Phone triggered radiation poses a potential risk to users[3]. While many researches have shown the unlikelihood of this being a fact, and point out at the stringent measures mobile phones meet before passing for human use (WHO IEGMP 2000), little research accounts for modified, recycled, outdated and broken down mobile phones that are largely used by women in poor communities who cannot afford to purchase new quality approved handsets.
Because of this general concern, further research needs to be done on the implications on health. And policy intervention to Increase regulation that monitors quality requirements of the tools being used is imperative.
Other work needs to be done on enhancing on knowledge of how economically disempowering ineffective use of the Mobile Phone can be and the cumulative effect of potential pollution as a result of the build up of mobile phones in developing countries like Zambia.
Women’s Effective adaptation of the Mobile Cellular Phone for Progressive Communication can contribute to Enhancement of women and Women’s Empowerment Organisations in Zambia but this is largely dependent on how women choose to utilize the tool.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The GRACE Zambia Research was a real learning experience on the uncanvassed terrain of ICT and women in Zambia. My interaction with the various groups through the process proved to be an invaluable self-development and improvement experience. I would love to believe that the questioning process that was the interaction between myself, and respondents from the various sectors proved mutually beneficial. I wish to thank the IDRC for their overall support of the GRACE Africa Project and more specifically Heloise Emdon for her encouragement. The GRACE Africa Research team (Graciousnesses) were a consistent motivation in my research journey and I felt like a string in the fine cord. I wish to acknowledge Ineke Buskens for her confidence in me, and Anne webb for being a backbone in my jelly research journey and webbing me in.
I wish to thank my family for their moral support, Sara Longwe Roy Clarke Jenah Daka and Grace Bwalya for being my consistent pillars of strength and understanding my choices.
The research respondents where invaluable and I wish to thank them for taking their time off busy schedules to attend to me. Mato Shimabale Strategic Marketing Manager at Celtel Zambia, Bob Wang at ZTE, Charles Kaile Data clerk MMD Secretariat, Kiato Biemba Mobiliser MMD Secretariat, Felix Mwansa Research and publications MMD Secretariat, Mr. Daka Assistant Personnel Manager Zamtel, Susan Chilala Zambia Council for Social Development Zambia Association for Research and Development ZARD, Priscilla Mpundu former Past Executive Director ZARD, Susan Mwape CSO APRM Zambia, Priscilla Jere Oneworld, Leah Mitaba NGOCC, The NGOCC Secretariat and Zambia Competitions Commission ZCC.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Against Neoliberalism: Gender, Democracy and Development Chachage,Chachage and Mbilinyi 2005)
Beijing +10 shadow report on the situation of women in Zambia (NGOCC 2004)
Beyond God the Father toward a philosophy of women’s liberation(Daly 1985)
Do Mobiles cost the Earth? (Kives BBC : http:www.bbc.co.uk/z/hi/science/nature/6174422.stm)
Effect of mobile telephony on empowering rural communities (Sinha 2005)
Electromagnetic Fields and public health: Mobile telephones and their base stations (WHO IEGMP 2000: HTTP://www.who.int/mediacentre/facsheets/fs1923/en/pnt.html)
Fine lines or Strong cords? Who do we think we are and who do we think we can become in the quest for quality in Qualitative Research (Buskens 2001)
Handbook of media laws in Zambia (Chanda and Liswaniso 1999)
Informal economy fighting poverty in Zambian Markets ()
Is Multiculturalism bad for women? (Okin)
My views on the news! The southern African Gender and Media Udience Study (Morna, Ramaand Muriungi 2005)
National Communication and information Technology Policy (Zambia 2006)
Power and self (Mageo 2002)
The Development of peoples. Challenges for today and tomorrow essays to mark the Fortieth Anniversary of Populorum Progressio (2007)
We make the road by walking, conversations on education and social Change (Horton and Freire 1990)
[1] According to the NGOCC report on the status of women 2004, five priority areas in Zambia for the advancement of women include;
· The persistent and growing burden of poverty on women and their unequal access to resources and participation in economic structure and policies;
· Inequality in access to and opportunities in education, skills development and training;
· Women’s unequal access to health and related services;
· Inequality between women and men in the sharing of Power and decision making; and
· The rights of the girl child
[2] www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/idselect/iducom/79/791.pdf
[3] http://new.independent.co.uk/sci-tech/article3353768.ece
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